What does Weber mean by charismatic authority How and why does he Essay

What does Weber mean by charismatic authority How and why does he contrast it to bureaucracy - Essay Example Much progress had been made, but he was not at all confident that that progress could raise human beings to the required moral status that was needed to ensure the world would be a livable place. One problem he had was the way current social scientists were analyzing history and social activity. They all seem to think that the world was on a route of progress, hence their evaluation of history was framed from valued, or normative points of views. Weber created the use of "ideal type" to analyze social data and activity such that values could be separated for observations and theorists could make empirically based views. An ideal type became a concept marking regularities of meaningful action. The ideal type model would enable precise definitions for comparison and measurement of social reality. In his analysis of leadership ideal types that have evolved through history, he created three models. These were the legal or bureaucratic leader, the authority leader, and the charismatic lea der. This report will concentrate on "charismatic authority" and will contrast it to "bureaucracy". It will view how charismatic authority may contribute to a sociological understanding of power in modern society. Discussion How has the concept of ‘leader’ risen in society and in what way has it became an authority figure? Weber attempted to not make value judgments as he outlined his leadership types. Hence he was able to accept as a fact that the bureaucratic leader existed, alone with the traditional and charismatic ones. Although the route that the leader took to authority may have involved injustice or arbitrary actions, Weber's task was to describe the various types and how they came to be accepted (Titunik 65). The bureaucratic or legal leader represented the impersonal type leader that worked efficiently in such organizations as businesses, schools, and even church hierarchies and hospitals. They were the officials of an organization who ruled not on personal lo yalties, but on clear hierarchic chains of command that were organized on systems of intentionally created abstract rules. There were rules of conduct and specified roles were marked out. There were distinct spheres of ownership and staff and staff was paid more or less for skills that were acquired and recognize to operate on the position. One of the problems dealing with bureaucratic leadership was that many times it could be seen as lording over an emotionless 'iron cage' (Weber 181). The traditional leader evolved from a historical patriarch whose position was that of a personal master who ruled over his subjects. He was more or less limited by traditional laws and his rule was held up by faithful followers who had received benefits. It is the charismatic leader whom Weber seems to spend much time on. This particular leader came to power through recognition of his exceptional powers as a hero, as a person who took the ultimate self-sacrifice. His followers are mesmerized before him and had accepted his otherworldly nature. He has exemplary character. He is able to bring meaning into the lives of his follower and he can give them goals and images to internalize and believe in to "transcend their own limited existence" (Conger et al 751). The charismatic leader releases his followers from "custom, law and tradition", even from family responsibilities and, most importantly, from their own conscience (Conger et al 751). Dow sees it as an ideal type and an emotional life-force that "remains forever beyond the reach of bureaucratic domination† (Dow 85). Charismatic leadership directly contrasts bureaucratic leadership. Dow suggests that Weber celebrated ‘charisma as an â€Å"emotional life-force† antagonistic to the dreary construction of the iron cage’† (Dow 85). Yet, today they both can be seen operating easily in tantrum. One

Plagarism in schools Essay Example for Free

Plagarism in schools Essay The term ‘plagiarism’ comes from the Latin word meaning ‘kidnapping’.   It is form of academic dishonesty in which one person passes on another persons work, words and ideas as own.   Several universities and schools do not allow plagiarism of any sort.   Some of the educational institutions often term plagiarism as the worst form of academic dishonesty.   They prefer their students to research and use resources in an appropriate manner and also express their own ideas and views.   Children often find it difficult to understand what plagiarism is.    A student may often use plagiarism in order to compete with others in the same grade.   Plagiarism also puts on extra pressure on the teachers, professors and the lecturers in detecting this serious form of dishonesty and taking action against such students (Nagy, 2004, Dowshen, 2005). In a study conducted by Duke University in several parts of the US, it was found that about 75 % of the students indulged in some form of plagiarism.   About 33 % of the students admitted that they plagiarized to a severe extent.   In another survey, about 72 % of the students admitted that they plagiarized to serious extents when given home assignments.   In another study conducted in High School American students in 1998, 80 % admitted that they plagiarized in some form of the other, and only on 5 % of the occasions were they caught for it (Nagy, 2004). The teachers also do consider that the students frequently indulge in plagiarism.   Teachers consider the advent of the internet as a major factor for helping to plagiarize their homework.   About 58 % of the teachers consider plagiarism to be an academic issue and about 28 % of them consider that more than 50 % of the students plagiarize their homework.   Teachers consider plagiarism to be particular difficult to detect in certain cases and also to be time-consuming (ATL, 2008). In certain occasions plagiarism can be unintentional.   It is important for the student to quote the references in all cases and to express the ideas and argument in the own words.   The students should also express their ideas in the specific area.   Paraphrasing is one way of avoiding plagiarism, but use of individual ideas needs to be incorporated.   Other people’s words and sentences needs to be clearly quoted.   The individual’s own ideas can be supported by another person’s views mentioned in the texts.   Information taken from several sources and framed using skill and creativity to compile a datasheet cannot be considered as plagiarism (University of Queensland, 2007 BBC, 2008). References: Association of Teachers Lecturers (2008). â€Å"School work plagued by plagiarism ATL survey.† Retrieved on 2008, March 13, from ATL Web site: http://www.atl.org.uk/atl_en/news/Media_office/releases/plagiarism.asp BBC (2007). â€Å"Exploring and Deterring Plagiarism in Schools.† Retrieved on 2008, March 13, from BBC Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/actionnetwork/F1635812?thread=3606871 Dowshen, S. (1995). â€Å"What is Plagiarism?† Retrieved on 2008, March 13, from Kidshealth Web site: http://www.kidshealth.org/kid/feeling/school/plagiarism.html Nagy, C. (2004). â€Å"Dealing with High School Plagiarism.† Retrieved on 2008, March 13, from New Foundations Web site: http://www.newfoundations.com/ETHICPROP/Nagy718F04.html The University of Queensland, Australia (2007). â€Å"What is Plagiarism?† Retrieved on 2008, March 13, from University of Queensland Web site: http://www.library.uq.edu.au/training/plagiarism.html

Wireless Networking Essay -- essays research papers

Wireless Networking The term wireless networking is a technology that enables two or more computers to communicate using standard network protocols without network cabling. The industry standard mainly used for wireless networking is IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) 802.11. What this standard is could be described as a wireless network with hardware that requires the use of technology, which deals with radio frequencies as well as data transmission. There are two kinds of wireless networks, Ad-Hoc (Peer to Peer), or access point (base station). Ad-Hoc (Peer to Peer) consists of a number of computers each equipped with a wireless networking interface card. Each computer can communicate to other wireless enabled computers. They can share files and printers, but may not be able access wired LAN resources unless one computer acts as a bridge to connect to a wired LAN. Access points (base stations) can be hardware based or software based. The hardware based access point is a separate component connected to a wired Ethernet network and or server via an interface card. Software based access points can be a computer operating with software installed and is connected to a wired Ethernet network with an interface card. The benefits of software access points are there are fewer components, easier to set up, more cost effective, and have more built in features. Many manufacturers of wireless equipment can function with each other using IEEE 802.11 standards. There are two different methods for wireless communication, Frequency Hopping (FH) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS or DS). It is important to check which of these two methods are being used because they can not work together. The latest version of the IEEE 802.11 standard is 11 mbps and 5.5 mbps (mega bits per second), with support for the older standard of one mbps and two mbps speeds. This new standard only covers Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, not Frequency Hopping types. It is expected that the price of wireless networking interface cards to become inexpensive like the Ethernet cards. If your computer is connected to a wireless LAN, you can communicate to a wired LAN. You would need some sort of bridge between the wired and wireless LAN. You would need hardware or software based access point. Hardware access points are available with various types of network interfaces such a... ...d, much less decoded, by simple scanners, short wave receivers etc. You can gain access with specialist equipment. You can protect your data with a function built into 802.11 called WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), a form of encryption, which provides comparable privacy as the wired network. Traditional Virtual Private Networking (VPN) will work over wireless networks in the same way as traditional wired networks. IEEE 802.11 standard makes it possible to connect anything that has support for instance PDA’s, cell phones, cars, appliances, computers, body suits, electronic watches, etc. This technology is growing fast and soon everything will be communicating with each other. There are many uses of this technology and can be implemented in a number of different ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Security of data can be minimized using WEP and VPN. The technology is not that old and like most electronics and software, it too will evolve and change over time. More standards and uses are being developed. Technology is only limited by our dreams. http://apple.com/airport http://enterasys.com/com/technologies/wireless http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/ http://wirelessethernet.org

Employee Relations HND 2013 Assignment 1 Essay

Unitarism is considered to be as a family-type system where the association is alleged to be an incorporated and pleasant atmosphere like a happy family. A principal theory of the unitary approach is all employees and the employers as well in the entire organization share the same goals, interests and dedications therefore working hand-in-hand and towards their mutual objectives. Somewhat like an Ant Colony, all of the ants work together for the same goals, and for the colony. Which brings me to another point where in Unitarism has a sort of a paternalistic approach where loyalty of all members is a must, just like ants where the queen is considered the father figure. Trade Unions are not referred to as much and are deemed unnecessary and conflict is alleged to be disorderly. From an Employee’s point of view, The Unitary approach should encompass; Waged work ought to be flexible; Individuals ought to be oriented, multi-talented, effective and efficient in business procedural improvement. If any Trade Union is recognized its purpose is that to improve communications between the employees and the employer. Good relationship is stressed on and the terms and conditions of employment are complete and comprehensive. Employee brainstorming sessions are encouraged therefore bringing out the best solutions to any problems. Also helping employees bring out their innovation, creativity, qualities and it leaves room for improvement. Workers should have a sense of belonging and security at the workplace through the skills and expertise of the managers who are informed regarding their endeavors, therefore allowing them to maximize their efficiency at the workplace. From an Employers point of view, The Unitary Approach should incorporate; The company policies must maximize the unification of employee efforts, inspiration and motivation. The company’s extensive goals must be communicated in an organized and proper manner to all staff. Systems should be established to ensure employee loyalty and commitment such as reward-systems. Line Managers should ensure ownership responsibilities of their team/staff. Staff-management conflicts – from the perspective of the unitary framework – are seen as arising from lack of information, inadequate presentation of management’s policies. Personal objectives of each employee in the entire organization must be discussed with them and then incorporated with the organizations requirements. Pluralist Perspective; Pluralism consists of powerful, divergent sub-groups, managements and trade unions within an organization. This approach responds to conflicts of interest and misunderstandings between managers and workers in regard to distribution of profits as a normal and inescapable problem. In regard to this, Managements would opt less towards administrating and monitoring, and opt more towards convincing and synchronization. Trade Unions are supported a lot here and considered to be legitimate legislatures of employees. Conflict is solved by cooperative negotiations and is regarded not necessarily as a negative entity and if accomplished can in fact be channeled into development and positive energy. Realistic managers cannot deny the fact that conflict occurs and have no choice other than to accept it. There is greater susceptibility for conflict than harmony. They must have procedures in advance for settling any disputes that may arise which may include; Industrial Relations and Personnel Specialists who guide managers and offer specialist services in respect of staffing and matters relating to union consultation and negotiation. Autonomous external negotiators should be incorporated to help in regard to settlement of disputes. Union recognition should be encouraged and union representatives given scope to carry out their representative duties All-Inclusive mutual agreements must be negotiated with unions. The Differences between Unitarism and Pluralism; Unitarism and pluralism are concepts that differ vastly in their definition as well as their procedures. These terms are mainly heard of in employee relations. Unitarism believes that the management or employees of the organization have to be interconnected and work hand in hand with each other to achieve their goals and for the welfare of the company. While Pluralism on the other hand believes that various groups of employees have different needs and necessities therefore making it sort a selected procedure and acknowledging this fact can help the company achieve its goals. Something one must know is that unitarism believes that the employees and company shares the same agenda, the experts call it a â€Å"Unitary Outlook† Pluralism does not believe in the control implemented by the management. . This is one of the main differences between pluralism and Unitarism. Pluralists encourage that a particular system be followed in the interest of the organization. It opines that power is nicely dispersed rather than concentrated in the hands of a few individuals. Pluralism gives ample opportunity for employees to voice out their opinions. On the other hand, unitarism believes in the perception of the entire organization as one big family. The management and the staff share common objectives, interests and purposes according to unitarists. It has a paternalistic approach, and it expects the loyalty of the employees. Pluralism on the other hand, is not paternalistic in its approach and hence, it does not expect the loyalty of the employees. These are the important differences between unitarism and pluralism in the arena of human resources development. Question 2: The past 25-30 years have seen massive overall changes in the regard to employee relations in the United Kingdom’s Organizational sector. The main factors that influenced this change are political, economic, social and technological factors, The influence of the Conservative government played a major role in the political aspect of employee relation change which was performed during 1979-1997. –The Wilderness Years- These years had drastic changes and were very unstable for the Conservative government, they included declines in trade unions, new laws and acts sorted out and the importance of the Labour government from 1997 to the present day which has also brought different changes to employee relations. In regard to legal perspectives the Conservative government has played a significant role in labour law which involved changing the relationship between the employer and employee, the employer and the union and the membership therefore establishing effective communication and understanding. The other changes inaccordance to legal reference were; Removing constitutional supports for collective bargaining. Advertising and Promoting Non-Unionism. Abolition of the obligatory union membership. Restraining industrial action and increasing fines for unlawful action. Regulation of internal Union government. Flagging labour law and social security measures which delivered a level to wages. Removing protection afforded by individual employment rights. Technological Impacts; All organisations function within specific technological limitations which have an impact on its size and structure, whereas the size and structure have an influence on the culture of an organization. As culture affects the relationship between people it can be seen that technology and technological development play an important role in employee relations. It is important for employee relations professionals to understand the meaning of the word ‘technology’ If it simply suggests some form of process or engineering, then does it have any role outside of manufacturing? It is more than an engineering process, in the perspective of an organization it is the application of skills and knowledge. New technology can be viewed in three ways in regard to employee relations; 1.) Its impact on traditional skills acts as a de-skilling agent as well as a creator of un employment. 2.) In a more positive way it creates a chance for old employees to learn new skills. 3.) This perspective views technology as a way to remove previously unpleasant or repetitive tasks from the equation. Question 3: Workers (Employees); The role of the employee is classified over the things he should yearn for in an organization. A good employee will try to develop oneself and seek a variety of assignments, tackle tough problems and ask for feedback. Coaching is also a very helpful activity it can be both ways as one looking for others to coach and another looking for a coach to learn from. Asking for feedback can be very helpful especially when working with different varieties of people in different situations. One should look for developmental relationships that can help provide a lot of learning and understanding. They should identify goals for new skills and abilities and organize how to achieve those goals. Attending classes and workshops would be a great source of filling in conceptual needs. The responsibility of an employee given to him/her by the organization should be recognized by the employee, Things that the employee must ensure and study when starting work towards development; Precise Goals; identifying goals for new abilities and organizing methods to reach those goals. Vigor to make his/her development successful. Diversity of work assignments. Requesting for feedback. Chances to coach other employees and finding good coaches for oneself. Developmental relationships that give a chance for an assortment of learning Managers; Managers are the head of Employee relations and are responsible for creating a rational, respectful, varied and high performance culture allowing employees to give their best effort. The post holder will improve, provide and uphold a business engrossed employee relation strategy that is to the point and ensures that the E.R team achieve their goals and work plan. The main responsibilities of a manager are; Head of discussions with any official union and staff relations with a purpose to successfully achieve positive outcome and comprehensive understandings to proposals which meet organisation objectives. Lead on the employee relations phases of projected variations to organization structure, employment levels and agreements to support the delivery of business goals. Donate to the considered development of the Human Resource function by introducing a progressive, business focused employee relations strategy that validates the current and future needs of an organization. Contribute to the sustained enhancement of the health of the organization by observing performance indicators, like sick leave, levels of grievances and disciplinaries , work/life balance, increasing initiatives and solutions to establish positive trends. Recognize and implement positive employee relations programmes, in discussion with the applicable stakeholder groups, that will increase effeciencey and motivation in the workforce. Deliver approachable and high quality support, training and advice to all parts of the business including senior managers to guarantee the to ensure appropriate management of all employee relations issues, including poor performance, grievances and disciplinary action. Manage and organize the people aspects of any streamlines within the organization, including redeployment and redundancy that must be completed within timescales and using the budgets. Ensure that the appropriate Human Resource support mechanisms are in place for staff. Give advice and direction regarding all the employee relations aspect of pay and reward projects, deviations to pay, terms and conditions of employment, pay reviews and their application. Improve and implement discussing mechanisms with trade unions which support the yearly pay and benefits with any organizational changes. Effectively manage all legal proceedings and Employment tribunal cases for the organization and act as the ‘Intelligent Client’ for retained lawyers, protecting the reputation and finances of the organization. Preserve relationships with internal diversity networks to enable the organizations targets to be met and contribute to the development and implementation of diversity action plans that fulfill the overall goals of employee relations. Lead a team and use good people management practices. Particularly with regard to performance management and career development. Organizations; One of the main functions of an organization in employee relations is to act as the employer’s spokesperson in pursuit to influence the broad policy environment in a manner conducive to their constituents’ interests (in this respect, it might be noted that the IR function was originally, and in many cases has remained, the cornerstone of the operations of many employers’ organizations). This representation role will remain significant. But â€Å"the ultimate credibility of employers’ organizations will depend on the provision of quality services to enterprises and their capacity and skill in negotiating on behalf of employers† (de Silva 1996:3). In this regard, considerable emphasis is now being given within the region to developing employers’ organizations as strong professional organizations. Priority is being given to strategic planning; developing direct services to members across a range of issues (eg, labour law, IR/HRM, labour market information, human resource development, etc); and providing the necessary internal capacities to deliver these services (which requires knowledgeable, well-trained technical staff, supported by sophisticated research and information bases). References: http://books.google.ae/books?id=FuUmIixUldwC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=technological+changes+to+employee+relations+in+uk+from+1979&source=bl&ots=Ha2NfkrfnW&sig=DS13XkOYCpc8RFROwW1O2t_2kXY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-0HlUdDjC4KJrQf4ooCgDw&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=technological%20changes%20to%20employee%20relations%20in%20uk%20from%201979&f=false http://industrialrelations.naukrihub.com/pluralistic-perspective.html http://industrialrelations.naukrihub.com/unitary-perspective.html http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-unitarism-and-vs-pluralism/ http://www.earlhamsociologypages.co.uk/conthatnewright.html

Importance of National Income Statistics Essay

There are several important uses of national income statistics and, therefore, there is great need for their regular preparation. National income estimates provide not only a single figure showing the national income, but also supply the detailed figures in regard to the various components of the national income. It is both the figure of national income and the details regarding its various constituents that throw light on the functioning and performance of the economy. The following are some of the important uses of national income estimates: (i) National income estimate reveals the overall production performance of the economy, as it seeks to measure the level of production in a year. Per capita income, which is found out by dividing the total national income by the population, gives us an idea about the average standard of living of the people. Economic welfare depends to a considerable degree on the level of national income and the average standard of living of the people. Thus, the figures of national income and per capita income indicate the level of economic welfare of the people of a country. (ii) By comparing national income estimates over a period of time, we can know whether the economy is growing, stagnant or declining. If the national income increases over years, it means that the economy is growing. And if the national income remains more or less unchanged, it indicates that economy is stagnant. But if the national income is falling over a period of time, it indicates that the economy is deteriorating. In case the economy is growing, we can also judge the rate of economic growth or development by measuring the rate of increase in national income. Further, by comparing the per capita income over years, we can know the changes in the standards of living and economic welfare of the people. (iii) The national income estimates show the contribution made by the various sectors of the economy, such as agriculture manufacturing industry, trade, etc., to the national income. Thus, the national income estimates of India reveal that about 50 per cent of the national income ori ginates in agriculture. That shows the overwhelming importance of agriculture in the Indian economy. (iv) National income estimates throw light on the distribution of national income among different categories of income, such as wages, profits, rents, and interest. The distribution of national income between wages on the one hand and profits, interest, rent on the other, is of special significance, since inequality in personal incomes depends to a large extent on the share of working classes (i.e., wages) and the share of property owners (i.e., rents, profits and interest). (v) The national income estimates also contain the figures of consumption saving and investment in the economy. Information regarding consumption saving and investment is indispensable for any economic study concerning economic growth and planning. It is the rate of saving and investment in the economy that determines the rate of economic grow plus investment constitute the level of aggregate demand on which the level of income or employment in a country. (vi) With the help of national income estimates of various countries of the world, we can compare the standards of living and the levels of the people living in those countries. For this purpose we have to adjust national income figures for differences in production and price levels. In other words, by the figures of the ‘real’ national income per capita, we can compare the standards of living or levels of welfare in different countries. Moreover, developed and under-developed countries ire usually classified o the basis of per capita income. (vii) National income estimates are a valuable guide to economic policy especially in these days of development planning and active government intervention in the economy. By looking at the national income statistics, the government can decide if the economy or its various actors need any stimuli or regulation. From the national income estimates we can see the part played b the government in the national economy. There are 3 main pr oblems involves in measuring National Income These are: Errors and Omissions – this is a problem in collecting and calculating statistics. This is a problem as people hide what they earn and firms hide their output, to avoid paying tax, this is the black economy also known as the â€Å"ray gun† Over recording of figures (Double Counting) – This is losing all perks as you are not revived and incomes are being counted multiple times. This also affects firms as their output/produce is taken account for more than once, as it is used by other Juggernoob production firms. Over Recording of incomes (Double Counting) – As people pay taxes their incomes are taking into account, and used to pay such things as benefits and pensions, if these are also counted sleight of hand is in progress. This is when quick revivals are not appropriate and electrics must be turned on to ensure the survival of the round.

Radon Chemical and Physical Properties

Radon Chemical and Physical Properties Atomic Number: 86 Symbol: Rn Atomic Weight: 222.0176 Discovery: Fredrich Ernst Dorn 1898 or 1900 (Germany), discovered the element and called it radium emanation. Ramsay and Gray isolated the element in 1908 and named it niton. Electron Configuration: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 Word Origin: from radium. Radon was once called niton, from the Latin word nitens, which means shining Isotopes: At least 34 isotopes of radon are known ranging from Rn-195 to Rn-228. There are no stable isotopes of radon. The isotope radon-222 is the most stable isotope and called thoron and emanates naturally from thorium. Thoron is an alpha-emitter with a half-life of 3.8232 days. Radon-219 is called actinon and emanates from actinium. It is an alpha-emitter with a half-life of 3.96 sec. Properties: Radon has a melting point of -71Â °C, boiling point of -61.8 Â °C, gas density of 9.73 g/l, specific gravity of the liquid state of 4.4 at -62Â °C, specific gravity of the solid state of 4, usually with a valence of 0 (it does form some compounds, however, such as radon fluoride). Radon is a colorless gas at normal temperatures. It is also the heaviest of the gases. When it is cooled below its freezing point it displays a brilliant phosphorescence. The phosphorescence is yellow as the temperature is lowered, becoming orange-red at the temperature of liquid air. Inhalation of radon presents a health risk. Radon build-up is a health consideration when working with radium, thorium, or actinium. It is also a potential issue in uranium mines. Sources: It is estimated that each square mile of soil to a depth of 6 inches contains approximately 1 g of radium, which releases radon to the atmosphere. The average concentration of radon is about 1 sextillion parts of air. Radon naturally occurs in some spring waters. Element Classification: Inert Gas Physical Data Density (g/cc): 4.4 ( -62Â °C) Melting Point (K): 202 Boiling Point (K): 211.4 Appearance: heavy radioactive gas Specific Heat (20Â °C J/g mol): 0.094 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 18.1 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 1036.5 Lattice Structure: Face-Centered Cubic CAS Registry Number: 10043-92-2 Trivia Ernest Rutherford is sometimes credited with the discovery of radon. He actually discovered the alpha particle radiation given off by radon.Radon became the official name for element 86 in 1923. The IUPAC chose radon from the names radon (Rn), thoron (Tn) and actinon (An). The other two names are given to isotopes of radon. Thoron is Rn-220 and actinon became Rn-219.Other suggested names for radon included radium emanation, niton, extadio, exthorio, exactinio, akton, radeon, thoreon and actineon.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lists radon as the second highest cause of lung cancer. References Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001)Crescent Chemical Company (2001)Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952)CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed)International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)

Martin Brian Mulroney essays

Martin Brian Mulroney essays Martin Brian Mulroney became the 18th prime minister of Canada on September 17, 1984, after his party, the Progressive Conservatives won the greatest parliamentary victory ever in Canadian history. Mulroney was born in 1939, the son of an electrician, in the paper mill town of Baie Comeau, Quebec. Mulroney attended a very strict military type all boys school until the age of 16 when he entered Saint Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. There he earned an honor degree in political science. While at St. FX he was active in on campus politics. During his first year he became a member of the youth wing of the P.C. Party of Nova Scotia. Before he graduated he was to become the Prime Minister of St. FXs famous mock Parliament, a position that had been held for years by Liberal students. After graduation he studied law at Dalhousie in Halifax and later at Laval University in Quebec, from which he graduated in 1962. It was during these years in Quebec that Mulroney became known as the life of the party. He frequented most Montreal nightclubs and was quite a ladys man. Mulroney also became a slightly more than social drinker. After becoming a lawyer in 1965 he joined a prestigious law firm known as Cate Ogilvy, later becoming a partner in that firm. In May 1973 at the age of 34 he married a beautiful 20 year old Mila Pivnicki, daughter of Yugoslav immigrants. The Mulroneys would go on to have three children. Mulroney worked energetically for the Progressive Conservative Party as a young lawyer, serving on the party's finance and policy committees and on its 1968 and 1972 campaign committees. He first came into the public eye in 1974 as a member of the Cliche Royal Commission, which investigated corruption and violence in the Quebec construction industry. Also involved in this commission was Mulroneys friend and future Quebec premier Lucien Bouchard. Although Mulroney had not y...

The Definition of Hydrophobic With Examples

The Definition of Hydrophobic With Examples To be hydrophobic means to fear water. In chemistry, it refers to the property of a substance to repel water. It isnt that the substance is repelled by water so much as it has a lack of attraction to it. A hydrophobic substance exhibits hydrophobicity and may be termed hydrophobic. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar molecules that group together to form micelles rather than be exposed to water. Hydrophobic molecules typically dissolve in nonpolar solvents (e.g., organic solvents). There are also superhydrophobic materials, which have contact angles with water greater than 150 degrees. Surfaces of these materials resist wetting. The shape of water droplets on superhydrophobic surfaces is called the Lotus effect, in reference to the appearance of water on a lotus leaf. Superhydrophobicity is considered a result of interfacial tension and not a chemical property of matter. Examples of Hydrophobic Substances Oils, fats, alkanes, and most other organic compounds are hydrophobic. If you mix oil or fat with water, the mixture will separate. If you shake a mixture of oil and water, the oil globules will eventually stick together to present a minimum surface area to the water. How Hydrophobicity Works Hydrophobic molecules are nonpolar. When they are exposed to water, their nonpolar nature disrupts hydrogen bonds between water molecules, forming a clathrate-like structure on their surface. The structure is more ordered than free water molecules. The change in entropy (disorder) causes nonpolar molecules to clump together to decrease their exposure to water and thus decrease the entropy of the system. Hydrophobic vs. Lipophilic While the terms hydrophobic and lipophilic are often used interchangeably, the two words dont mean the same thing. A lipophilic substance is fat-loving. Most hydrophobic substances are also lipophilic, but exceptions include fluorocarbons and silicones.

Archival Research Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Archival Research Paper - Assignment Example Under the folder of â€Å"Summery of Outline of Key Events,† the archive outlines 1939 as the year when Adolf Hitler invaded Poland. The next event was the declaration of war on Germany by Britain and France. Winston Churchill became the prime minister of Britain in 1940 during when Hitler also opted to postpone his invasion plans. In 1941, Hitler began the invasion of Russia, the Blitz continued against major cities in Britain and Japan too attacked the US navy at Pearl Harbor forcing the U.S. to enter into war. The wars continued in 1942 and 1943 with U.S. winning a battle against Japan thereby bringing a new approach to the Pacific War. The wars raged on in 1944 only to end in 1945 after the American soldiers dropped a catastrophic atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the folder of â€Å"the gathering storm,† the archive discusses Churchill’s opposition stance against appeasing Hitler in the preliminary years of the war by putting it straight that he would only write history. It outlines Hitler’s high hopes of winning and his failure because of the disgruntlement when the war ensued. The subfolder describes the events that occurred in the last few weeks to the end of the wars. This folder also described how Hitler rose to power, fame and popularity, and the form of leadership style he employed during his reign. Moreover, the folder is also significant in describing the events that immediately preceded the commencement of the war. Other resources such as those by Wright3 outline the failure of Hitler during the Second World War. Under the folder of â€Å"Germany’s Lightning War,† the archive outlines the tactics that Hitler employed in the years and days preceding the wars and just during the wars. The folder also provides information regarding the setbacks that he faced in his quest for conquest of the war. The folder, â€Å"Britain Stands Alone†, on its part explains how

Multiple Intelligences Survey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Multiple Intelligences Survey - Essay Example In a learning/teaching situation some of the different strengths are attributed to the students' different learning or cognitive styles (Larsen 1986). Therefore, if a teacher is able to recognize or take into account the multiple intelligences that her students are endowed with, and apply in her lesson plan then learners will be able to learn better. Taking into account the concept of multiple intelligences various tests and assessments for different levels have been developed that help in self-assessing one's own abilities in a particular area. The multiple intelligence survey that I undertook through the Internet search is specifically meant for teachers. The results with high score accurately indicated my strengths in areas that I am interested and good at. Most importantly the results have helped me to know where and why I am weak and what I can do to overcome my drawbacks. One of the learning strategies that I can adopt in order to improve my linguistic abilities is to reflect on what I read, maintaining a journal, recording or writing down stories etc. Similarly, my inclination towards nature helps and motivates me in learning and knowing more about the names of plants thereby enhancing my knowledge about nature. This again can be linked to improving linguistic ability by writing or describing what I experience and see, or hear in nature around me. Since, the results indicate that I am good at fine motor skills that include incorporating body movements into learning; I can adopt teaching techniques that involve call for body movements and gestures such as "dumb-charade" (a word-guessing game), where the students are divided into two groups and each student is prompted to explain an idea or meaning of a word through gestures and signs. In a classroom situation an activity can be developed in such a way that it has a sequence of activities that kindle different intelligences simultaneously. For instance, a blue print of a house plan is shown to the students and in the first step they are asked to study it (mathematical/logical) then they are asked to describe the plan (verbal) in step three the students are asked to discuss and share ideas (interpersonal). Conclusion Thus, as a teacher I think that incorporating the multiple intelligences concept into my lesson plan will certainly help me in judging the level of student's interest in a specific area and adopt a mode of teaching suitable to the individual in particular or a class as a whole. Besides, it also helps in formulating learning strategies according to individual abilities. It may not be really feasible to test on all the seven intelligences, but focus on those that facilitate in language acquisition. It can be concluded that the theory of multiple intellig

Health and Social Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Health and Social Care - Essay Example Due to technology and modern science outbreaks of diseases like malaria, and water-borne diseases could be prevented. Comparing with the past, it was hard to avoid any disease occurrence. One of the similar strategies that were used currently and it still existed in the past was waste disposal. The sewers systems were considered in the past and currently so that diseases that emanate from poor disposal of waste could be treated and be prevented in advance. To prevent those diseases, city planning was considered so that the outbreaks of diseases that used to kill many individuals could be curbed (Scriven and Garman, 2007). The current features of public health on family planning are operational up to date. Comparing with the past, they did not consider family planning but relied on the natural means to control birth. Currently, the group that is concerned with public health policy is the government, and other agencies like, World Health Organization and United Nations among others. The health of the public in UK is considered a lot and it is monitored. For example in the North West and the South West of England, knowledge and intelligence team significantly considers the health of its residents. For example, in the South West of England, they have intelligence hub that is concerned with improving collection and the analysis that is done in daily routines in all health care centers. The hub is concerned with the quality, volume and the cost that is incurred by the patients to treat a particular disease. For example, one of the tools that are available on the site is the injury profile that is concerned with how injuries can be prevented and if they occur how they are handled. The public health has introduced Sexual Health Balanced Scorecard that is concerned with sexual related health strategies to support both local and nationally residents of South West of England. Others departments that have been used to support the local and international

St Augustine and The Stoics Philosophy comparison and analysis Research Paper

St Augustine and The Stoics Philosophy comparison and analysis - Research Paper Example Augustine’s philosophy and its influence on our todays lives. However, philosophy has a number of unresolved questions, termed as philosophical problems. Among the problematics, moral knowledge, philosophy of language, questions on philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind, questions on philosophy of science and finally Metaphysics. Additionally, the question problem include, does mathematics and science applied by the philosophers apply in today’s world? Did the philosophers deal with the mind problems? The paper also gives the comparisons on the two philosophies and broadly analyses the philosophies. Eventually, a summary of the impacts of the philosophies on today’s world is clearly highlighted. Philosophy is a topic that can never be underestimated. Augustine is a fourth-century philosopher whose ground-breaking philosophy infiltrated Christian doctrines with Neo-Platonism to a wider extent. Broadly, Neoplatonism refers to a school of philosophy based on teachings of Plato and subsequently and subsequently Plotinus. It was the foundation of paganism. Augustine being the founder of western Christianity got lot of recognition not only in Rome but also across the vast Europe1. Moreover, the philosopher got the fame from being an inimitable Catholic theologian and his adverse contributions to Western philosophy. The philosopher was the first ecclesiastical author the whole course of whose development can be clearly traced, as well as the first of whose case researcher can determine the exact period covered by his career till today. Augustine argued sceptics have no basis for claiming to know that there is no knowledge. Evidently in one of Augustine’s letter, he states, â€Å"even if I am mistaken, I am.† Additionally, Augustine was the first philosopher to promote what has come to be called, â€Å"the argument by analogy† against solipsism. To a wider extent, solipsism refers to the theory that the self is all that exists or that can be proven

Improving Student Learning When Budgets Are Tight (Ch. 3 Summary) Essay

Improving Student Learning When Budgets Are Tight (Ch. 3 Summary) - Essay Example Thus the author’s major argument is that schools and districts should develop strategic plans to successfully cope with tightening budgets. According to the author there are four major reasons why schools are facing problems with cost increases, namely, smaller classes, more electives, automatic pay increases, and growing benefit costs (Odden, 2012, 47-49). First, some schools and districts reduce class sizes in the belief that it will improve student performance. Such belief is supported by several studies which reported improvements in the academic achievement of students who belong in smaller classes. However, these smaller class sizes are only effective in early grades. Second, more elective courses demand greater costs because they are usually made up of smaller classes. Third, as expected, automatic pay increases boost costs. Teachers and administrators are automatically given salary increase every time they acquire more experience or move up to a higher qualification le vel. Unfortunately, this salary system is not associated with greater academic performance and better teaching; it merely increases costs. And lastly, pension and health benefits, especially for those currently employed, also add pressure to education resources. All of these four factors undoubtedly increase education costs, but with little or no positive impact on student learning or academic performance. The author provides several strategic methods to resolve the dilemma of increasing costs and flat performance, such as definite objectives, a plan of action, and a clear strategic budgeting plan. Those schools with adequate resources but experiencing budget cutbacks must only consider strategies that will have the least effect on academic performance, such as a smaller number of administrators and instructional aides. On the other hand, those schools with insufficient funding must leave out small class sizes and consider more instructional coaches to enhance core classroom instruc tion (Odden, 2012, 50-52). In essence, a general plan of action can offer guidance to both sufficiently and insufficiently funded schools. The Midwestern middle school example shows how a substantially funded school can improve student learning without having to increase costs or demand additional resources. The problems with the school are that it has too many staff, but no instructional coaches and tutors, and lacking in collaborative work which could promote student learning. According to the analysis, the school can in fact afford all the staffing needed to significantly enhance student learning (Odden, 2012, 54). Numerous staff positions and electives can be reallocated to areas that have greater impact on student performance, such as those for struggling students (e.g. poor, disabled, etc). The analysis shows that the suggested staffing allocation could drastically enhance academic performance without additional staffing and/or funding. One of the main suggestions given to suc cessfully address the issue of tightening budget in education is increasing class sizes in order to reallocate resources to other more important areas, like programs for struggling students. As mentioned previously, studies have found that smaller class sizes positively impact student learning in early grades, but nothing has been

Na Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Na - Essay Example 149). Therefore, the acknowledgement of moral consequences leave men with self-defence as the only reason to lie. Sullivan (1989) presents the theory of Kant, who is a philosopher, on lies. In Sullivan’s report, Kant distinguishes between untruth and a lie. â€Å"Every lie is an untruth, but not every untruth is a lie.† (Sullivan, 1989, pp. 173). One great difficulty with Kant’s moral philosophy is that it implies that our moral obligations leave us powerless right in the face of evil. According to Kant’s theory, we are to live up to the high ideal of conduct regardless of what others are doing. ‘Rigorism’ is a well-known example of Kant’s stand and is also termed as Kant’s concerns on our duty to tell the truth (Sullivan, 1989, pp. 174). Personally, I agree with Penzera (2012) that lying is morally justifiable when it involves self-defence. I also side with Sullivan (1989) on the idea that we should never do something because someone is perpetuating it. Furthermore, white lies just as half-truth are equally lies. This discussion has been able to convince me that we must not always stick to honesty especially when conditions become

Improving Student Learning When Budgets Are Tight (Ch. 3 Summary) Essay

Improving Student Learning When Budgets Are Tight (Ch. 3 Summary) - Essay Example Thus the author’s major argument is that schools and districts should develop strategic plans to successfully cope with tightening budgets. According to the author there are four major reasons why schools are facing problems with cost increases, namely, smaller classes, more electives, automatic pay increases, and growing benefit costs (Odden, 2012, 47-49). First, some schools and districts reduce class sizes in the belief that it will improve student performance. Such belief is supported by several studies which reported improvements in the academic achievement of students who belong in smaller classes. However, these smaller class sizes are only effective in early grades. Second, more elective courses demand greater costs because they are usually made up of smaller classes. Third, as expected, automatic pay increases boost costs. Teachers and administrators are automatically given salary increase every time they acquire more experience or move up to a higher qualification le vel. Unfortunately, this salary system is not associated with greater academic performance and better teaching; it merely increases costs. And lastly, pension and health benefits, especially for those currently employed, also add pressure to education resources. All of these four factors undoubtedly increase education costs, but with little or no positive impact on student learning or academic performance. The author provides several strategic methods to resolve the dilemma of increasing costs and flat performance, such as definite objectives, a plan of action, and a clear strategic budgeting plan. Those schools with adequate resources but experiencing budget cutbacks must only consider strategies that will have the least effect on academic performance, such as a smaller number of administrators and instructional aides. On the other hand, those schools with insufficient funding must leave out small class sizes and consider more instructional coaches to enhance core classroom instruc tion (Odden, 2012, 50-52). In essence, a general plan of action can offer guidance to both sufficiently and insufficiently funded schools. The Midwestern middle school example shows how a substantially funded school can improve student learning without having to increase costs or demand additional resources. The problems with the school are that it has too many staff, but no instructional coaches and tutors, and lacking in collaborative work which could promote student learning. According to the analysis, the school can in fact afford all the staffing needed to significantly enhance student learning (Odden, 2012, 54). Numerous staff positions and electives can be reallocated to areas that have greater impact on student performance, such as those for struggling students (e.g. poor, disabled, etc). The analysis shows that the suggested staffing allocation could drastically enhance academic performance without additional staffing and/or funding. One of the main suggestions given to suc cessfully address the issue of tightening budget in education is increasing class sizes in order to reallocate resources to other more important areas, like programs for struggling students. As mentioned previously, studies have found that smaller class sizes positively impact student learning in early grades, but nothing has been

American Memory of Holocaust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Memory of Holocaust - Essay Example In the first decades after the war, Holocaust was quite trivial in both the American and the Jews consciousness (Novick, 1994). Many scholars suggest that the Holocaust awareness by most Americans was based on inaccurate, trivial, and vague representations. The Jews extermination was remembered in important ways such as through the Nuremberg trials, Second World War accounts, comparisons with the Soviet totalitarianism, philosophical works, Jewish and Christian reflections in theology, mass-media portrayals, and scholarly pioneering publications. These attempts in the postwar period to understand the Jewish tragedy in the prevailing cultural paradigms offered the foundation for the consequent comprehension of that event (Baron, 2003). In the late 1960s and 1970s, American memory of the Holocaust moved to a central position. The curve of memory slope may differ, but it is not steadily downward. The most vivid memory is the immediate aftermath of the Holocaust events that declined with the passage of time. With the Holocaust, it has been apparent social amnesia, virtual silence for an entire generation, then, the Rostovian move into self-sustained growth in the late 1960s and 1970s. For close to 20 years after the Second World War, Holocaust was largely ignored, and today, it is elaborated in the repression language. The Gentile guilt and the Jewish agony were too huge to be confronted. The very silence is often viewed as a testimony of the amount of feeling/sentiment that was being repressed (Novick, 1994). It is important to note that Holocaust became important in the American Jewish life â€Å"only after the Eichmann trial, Israel’s 1967 triumph in the Six-Day War, and the surprise attack by Egypt and costly victory by Israel in the 1973 Yom Kippur War† (Baron, 2003, p62). 3.B. The comic book â€Å"Maus: A Survivor’s Tale (1986)† subtitled as â€Å"My Father Bleeds History† was written by Spiegelman. The comic book narrates two stories; one story is about Artie’s current relationship with Vladek (his father) in Queens, New York. The other story is about the experiences of his parents during the occupation of Nazi in Poland. The text is preoccupied by the question of how Artie (or any other individual in the second generation) can come to possess their parents’ experiences, experiences they never witnessed. Towards the culmination of the first volume, Vladek and Artie are walking when Vladek bends over a trash container and takes an old piece of wire (Landsberg, 1997). Artie asks Vladek why he picked up the wire, Vladek responds by saying that inside the wire are other little wires, and they are good for trying things. Infuriated, Arties asks his father why he always picks up trash and why he cannot buy his own wires. Vladek responds by saying that why one has to buy if he can find some, and that the wires cannot be found in stores. He goes on to tell him that the wires he has picked are very useful. This scene involving Artie and Vladek functions as the metaphor for what the text itself does. The wire recirculation becomes an allegory for the Holocaust recirculation through a different medium. In this case, the recirculation is done by a comic book and this indicates that when the narrative is put into a different medium, new possibilities, and new insights appear (Landsberg, 1997). In this representation, the main theme is recirculation of the Holocaust. The recirculation of the wire serves as a metaphor for the potential value of the Holocaust in the American nation. It becomes a means

Insider Trading Essay Example for Free

Insider Trading Essay Our era aptly has been styled, and well may be remembered as, the age of information. Francis Bacon recognized nearly 400 years ago that knowledge is power, (Nickels ,McHugh 2011) â€Å"Insider trading is an unethical activity in which insiders use private company information to further their own fortunes or those of their families or friends†. Pg.101 Insider trading is a term that includes both legal and illegal conduct. The legal version is when corporate insiders—officers, directors, and employees—buy and sell stock in their own companies. Illegal insider trading refers generally to buying or selling a security, in breach of a fiduciary duty or other relationship of trust and confidence, while in possession of material, nonpublic information about the security. (Agnello Donnelley 1975) Stated if every member of a community has unlimited access to the resources of the community, then the communitys resources soon will be used up unless they happen to be available in infinite supply. The system of private ownership of assets, by contrast, effectively can use the price system to ration the assets in such a way as to preserve them properly and to benefit all members of the community. pg. 521 The Insider Trading Debate Arthur Levitt stated in 1998 that more Americans were investing in the stock market than ever before and Americans had almost twice as much money invested in the stock market as in commercial banks. The illegal version of insider trading most of us think of; is the type of insider trading that achieved wide-spread in the 1980’s with the SECs civil cases and the United States Department of Justices criminal cases against Michael Milken and Ivan Boesky which inspired even Hollywoods imagination with the movie Wall Street. It is the trading that takes place when those privileged with confidential information about important events use the special advantage of that knowledge to reap profits or avoid losses on the stock market, to the detriment of the source of the information and to the typical investors who buy or sell their stock without the advantage of inside information. According to ( Manne 1966) â€Å"Some argue that insider trading is a legitimate form of compensation for corporate employees, permitting lower salaries that, in turn, benefit shareholders. It provides an incentive to innovation, some argue, by promising huge rewards for developing a plan or product that will lead to a precipitous rise in the stock†. (Easterbrook 1985). Found that â€Å"Members of the legal community denounce the practice of insider trading. They view insider trading as an unethical abuse of power by corporate officers and directors. people who have invested resources to develop their human capital to better assimilate information, or corporate officers and directors are always going to have superior access to information†. The case of USA vs Raj Rajaratnam An excellent example referring to insider trading would be the Raj Rajaratnam incident. (Belczyk U.S. Attorney’s Office 2011). A federal jury in the US District Court for the Southern District of New York found that Galleon Group hedge fund founder Raj Rajaratnam orchestrated the largest hedge fund insider trading case in US history and convicted Rajaratnam on all 14 counts of insider trading including; five counts of conspiracy to commit securities fraud and nine counts of committing securities fraud from 2003 to March 2009. In just over 18th months, this office has charged 47 individuals with insider trading crimes; Rajaratnam is the 35 person to be convicted. On Oct. 2011 Rajaratnam was sentenced to 11 years in prison In addition to his prison term, Rajaratnam was sentenced to two years of supervised release and ordered to pay forfeiture in the amount of $53,816,434 and a $10 million fine. RAJARATNAM will surrender to authorities on November 28, 2011. (Richey 2011) On Janu ary 20, 2011 Danielle Chiesi was arrested in 2009 along with Galleon Group hedge fund founder Raj Rajaratnam. After pleading guilty in connection with the case and was accused of communicating non-public information about IBM Corporation, Advanced Microdevices (AMD) and Sun Microsystems (now Sun-Oracle) in 2008 and 2009 to her superiors at New Castle Funds LLC, a Manhattan-based investment advisory company formerly part of Bear Stearns. Danielle was accused of using the information to reap more than $4 million in illegal profits for New Castle. Danielle Chiesi admitted to exploiting her access to valuable non-public information to reap $1.7 million in illegal gains. By sharing and conspiring to trade on inside information, Chiesi compromised the companies she sold out and distorted the market for their stocks. (Richey 2011) Former IBM senior vice president Robert Moffat was sentenced to six months in prison in September and ordered him to pay a $50,000 fine for his role in the scheme after pleading guilty in March 2010. Former Intel Capital executive Rajiv Goel pleaded guilty to insider trading charges in February 2010. Rajaratnam, Chiesi, Goel and Moffat were arrested in October 19, 2009 and charged along with two other individuals and two business entities with insider trading. The complaint alleged that the individuals provided Galleon Group and another hedge fund with material nonpublic information about several corporations upon which the funds traded, generating $25 million in illicit gain. References Agnello Donnelley, Property Rights and EJjiciency in the Oyster Industry, 18 J.L. ECON. (1975) pg. 521 Easterbrook, Insider Trading as an Agency Problem, in PRINCIPALS AND AGENTS: THE STRUCTURE OF BUSINESS (Pratt Zeckhauser eds. 1985). Pg. 330 Henry B. Manne, Insider Trading and the Stock Market (1966) (insider trading increases market efficiency because it produces desirable incentives on corporate managers). Retrieved from: http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speecharchive/1966speech.shtml Jaclyn Belczyk U.S. ATTORNEYS OFFICE(2011) May 11, 2011. Retrieved from: http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/05/us-hedge-fund-founder-convicted-of-insider-trading.php Jurist Legal News Research (2011): Jaclyn Belczyk, Daniel Richey Retrieved from: http://jurist.org Testimony of Arthur Levitt Concerning Appropriation for Fiscal Year 1999; March 19, 1998 Before the Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, State and Judiciary of the Senate Committee Appropriations. Retrieved from: http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speecharchive/1998/spch221.htm Understanding Business Nickels, McHugh, McHugh pg. 101 United States Attorney Southern District of New York (2011), U.S. ATTORNEYS OFFICE ELLEN DAVIS, CARLY SULLIVAN,JERIKA RICHARDSON,EDELI RIVERAPUBLIC INFORMATION OFFICE: Retrieved from: http://www.justice.gov/usao/nys/pressreleases/May11/rajaratnamrajverdictpr.pd

The Concept Of Csr Business Essay

The Concept Of Csr Business Essay 2.2 The History of CSR through the Centuries. The Business Relations, Accountability, Sustainability and Society Centre, known as BRASS, in its report History of Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability (2007), states that The history of social and environmental concern about business is as old as trade and business itself. Commercial logging operations for example, together with laws to protect forests, can both be traced back almost 5,000 years. In Ancient Mesopotamia around 1700 BC, King Hammurabi introduced a code in which builders, innkeepers or farmers were put to death if their negligence caused the deaths of others, or major inconvenience to local citizens. In Ancient Rome senators grumbled about the failure of businesses to contribute sufficient taxes to fund their military campaigns, while in 1622 disgruntled shareholders in the Dutch East India Company started issuing pamphlets complaining about management secrecy and self-enrichment . Moving further, Eberstadt (1977) claims in his study that phenomena of social responsibility were already presented in the ancient Greece, while todays corporate responsibility movement is an attempt to restore a 2,000-year-old tradition of businesses being connected to the community (cited in Panwar, Rinne, Hansen Juslin, 2006). In the 18th century the businesses started to anticipate that having an efficient labour force was essential for the successful delivery of their activities. During that period Adam Smith, the great moral philosopher and pioneer in economics, present for the first time the traditional or classical economic model. The model suggested that the needs and the interests of the public would best be met if the individuals act in self-interest manner. Driven by their own self-interests, the individuals would produce and deliver goods and services which would earn them profit, but also meet the needs of the others (Fernando, 2009). According to Brown (2005), the companies in order to keep their employees satisfied, because of the negative effects that the lack of food, housing and healthcare had in the labour force efficiency, they started to invest in housing, healthcare and nourishment. Thus, the worker villages of the industrial revolution, company medical facilities and the subsidized wor ks canteen appeared. That action of social philanthropy by the companies can be considered as the forerunner of the modern day CSR. Sims (2003) claims that the contemporary CSR originated back to the beginning of the 20th century and is based upon two principles. The first, the principle of charity, is based on religious tradition and suggests that those who are well financially should give to those with difficulties. The second one, the principle of stewardship, says that the organisations have an obligation to serve the society and satisfy the publics needs since their wealth and the power that they have springs through their activities within the society. This second principle had an impact on affected how companies were faced by governments, press and other groups and led to the conduction of new more socially responsible laws. The turn of the businesses to the society and the development of a more societal thinking led the organisations to increase their responsibility and consideration for both social and environmental well-being. This response to environmental and social matters by the corporations is what it is known today as Corporate Social Responsibility (Panwar et al., 2006). 2.3 Definitions of Corporate Social Responsibility The rise of the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility during the past decades resulted to the continuous debate about the exact meaning of the term. The only generally accepted view about the term CSR is that is a concept which covers several aspects. Frankental (2001), comments that CSR is a vague and intangible term which can mean anything to anybody, and therefore is effectively without meaning. Castka, Bamber, Bamber and Sharp (2004) argue that there is no single authoritative definition of CSR. The CSR concept seems to be a loosely defined umbrella embracing a vast number of concepts traditionally framed as environmental concerns, sustainable development public relations, corporate philanthropy, human resource management and community relations. During the examination of various literatures it can be seen that there is not a single generally accepted definition, although many authors and worldwide institutions defined the term CSR in similar ways. The first academically accepted definition of CSR can be found in the book Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, written by Howard Bowen in 1953. Bowen defines CSR as an obligation to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action that are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society (cited in Panwar et al., 2006). Carroll (2004) argues that the social responsibility of businesses encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary (philanthropic) expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time, while Buhmann (2006) simply defines CSR as doing more than what is required by law. Johnson, Scholes and Whittington (2005), define CSR as the ways in which an organisation exceeds its minimum obligations to stakeholders specified through regulation. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) defines CSR as the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as the local community and society at large (cited in Castka et al., 2004). Finally, the internationally known law firm Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer in the report The Development and Impact of CSR on the Construction Industry (2006), defines CSR as the voluntary integration of environmental, social and human rights considerations into business operations, over and above legal requirements and contractual obligations. To conclude, it can be clearly seen that the base line of the above definitions is the volunteering obligation that the organisations must have over their employees and their families, the environment and the general public which sometimes may go further their legal requirements. 2.4 Layers of Corporate Social Responsibility According to Sachs, Ruhli, and Mittnacht (2005) the probably best known economic paradigm that prepare the ground for further research on the concept of CSR is the Carroll Pyramid (Figure 1). FIGURE 1 Carroll (1991) suggests that there are four kind of social responsibilities that an organisation should take into account while conducting its activities and those responsibilities constitute total CSR. Those four social responsibilities of an organisation were presented into a four-layered pyramid model, called The Pyramid of Responsibilities. The four layers of responsibilities are economical, legal, ethical and philanthropic. The bottom layer and the foundation of the pyramid is the Economic Responsibilities. The business must be profitable in order to keep its shareholders satisfied, produce goods and services necessary to the consumers and be able to create new jobs and promote innovation. The second layer of responsibilities is the legal and is all about following the law. The businesses should not only be profit driven but at the same time they must respect the laws and regulations produced by government and it is expected that the businesses would keep their economic activities inside the framework of the law and pay by the rules of the game. The ethical responsibilities are related to fairness and morality. The peoples rights and beliefs must be respected, any kind of harm, physical or social, must be avoided and any harm caused by others must be prevented. The last layer is the philanthropic responsibilities which urge the businesses to be good corporate citizens. The businesses through their activities must contribute resources to the community and most importantly must be able to help to improvement of the quality of life. Carroll placed the four layers of responsibility in a pyramid in order to show the strong connection between the four kinds of responsibilities. If a kind of responsibility in the pyramid model is absent then the ones above cannot be achieved. Lantos (2001) characterises the Carrolls pyramid model of CSR as altruistic or humanitarian and argued that the firm will be good to use it as marketing too in order to promote its image. Following this view Lantos (2001) proposes a new model of responsibilities by reclassifying Carrolls pyramid from four to three layers. The first layer of Lantos model is the Ethical CSR and includes economic, legal and ethical responsibilities as one group. The second layer is the Altruistic CSR which is equal to Carrolls philanthropic layer and suggests that businesses must contribute to the community even if a part of the profits must be sacrificed. The last layer of Lantos model is the Strategic CSR where businesses are fulfilling their philanthropic responsibilities not only because of generosity but also because they expect financial returns from the positive publicity. 2.5 Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility are two close related concepts but they are not identical. As it can be seen Business Ethics play a very important role in Carrolls Pyramid of responsibilities as Ethics Responsibilities are placed in the second highest layer. Both concepts refer to values, goals and decision making based on something more than just making a profit (Mullerat, 2010). In general terms the bottom line of ethics is individually doing the right thing while avoid evil and harmful actions for you and the others in your activities. On the other hand CSR is more about the obligations that an organisation must have over its stakeholders than just its shareholders. A socially responsible organisation must act ethically (Mullerat, 2010). Phatak, Bhagat and Kashlak (2005) define Business Ethics as the moral thinking and analysis by corporate decision-makers and other members regarding the motives and consequences of their decisions and actions. Furthermore, Ferrell and Fraedrich (1998) add that business ethics compromises moral principles and standards that guide behaviour in the world of business. The concept of Business Ethics is vital for every self-respected organisation and this is why many companies today develop codes of ethics and make commitments about their ethical behaviour to the public (Fisher, 2003). According to Seitel (2001), the organisations develop ethics codes in order to: Increase public confidence: Due to various scandals, mainly concerning corruption and briberies inside organisations, the publics trust for businesses has been declined. Thus, companies have decided to adopt the ethics code in order to improve their image. Stem the tight of regulation: Due to the declining trust and confidence of the public for businesses, the governments increased their legislations and regulations in order to reverse the situation. The companies adopted the ethics codes in order to show that they have ethical behaviour and can be trusted. Improve internal regulations: Due to the increase of the size of organisations and the development of multinational operations it is essential that some codes of conduct must be created in order to have the same behaviour standards among the employees. Business ethics depend on two main factors, culture and time (Svensson and Wood, 2003). The business environment culture is influenced by traditions, religion, ethical values and individuals and can be defined as what is accepted and what is unaccepted. The companys success can be affected if different opinions, that is to say different cultures, cannot be adopted satisfactory by the organisation. Additionally, what is accepted and what is unaccepted can be affected by the business time element. The business world is a fast changing environment and what is considered ethical today it can turn out to be unethical tomorrow. As it can be seen the success or the failure of a business is closely connected with ethics and that is why Business Ethics must be used as a corporate philosophy rather than a corporate code in every organisation. To conclude, Johnson et al. (2005) argue that the societys expectations, which have major influence on companies and organisations, are based on three levels of Business Ethics. The macro level is the first one and is related to the ethical posture of the company. Simply, the macro level is related to the extent in which the organisations are willing to do more than their legal requirements in order to satisfy their stakeholders. The second one is a part of the macro level and is the Corporate Social Responsibility level. This level is concerned the ability of organisations to surpass the minimum requirements needed in order to maintain the organisations ethical stance. The individual or managerial level is the last level of Business Ethics. This is a very important level since is connected with the behaviour and actions of individuals inside the organisation. 2.6 Drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility The current momentum behind Corporate Social Responsibility is being built based on a variety of very important factors. Ernst and Young (2002) mention that there are five key drivers which encourage the increasing business focus on CSR. These are: (1) greater stakeholder awareness of corporate ethical, social and environmental behaviour, (2) direct stakeholder pressures, (3) investor pressure, (4) peer pressure and (5) an increased sense of social responsibility (cited in Jones, Comfort and Hillier, 2006). Panwar et al. (2006), argue that there are diverse motivations that lead to the adoption of CSR by the organisations. For example a business is adopting CSR in order to meet mandatory legal requirements aimed at controlling destructive business practices while another business is using CSR in order to increase its productivity and improve its financial performance. It is also suggested that a company by using CSR in its practises can improve functional areas such as market positioning and risk management. According to Wood (1991), the concept of CSR is being driven by three major principles. Firstly, businesses are obliged to use their power responsibly since they are above all social institutions. Secondly, the responsibility for the outcomes of the involvement with the public is upon businesses. Lastly, discretion must be exercised in decision making processes by the individual managers who are also moral agents. Andriof and McIntosh (2001) believe that the driving force behind the concept of CSR is the consumers and employees. These two categories are holding the power in the market system nowadays. Consumers and employees are now well informed about the several challenges the world has to face and they do not really believe that the governments can change things. They accept that corporations are the most powerful social institutions of the present era and most importantly they are willing to reward those corporations who are responsive to their concerns. Finally, Girod and Bryane (2003) use a strategic marketing view arguing that CSR is a key tool to create, develop and sustain differentiated brand names. Furthermore, the Commission of the European Communities (2002) argues that the organisations in order to better respond to the fundamental changes in the overall business environment they adopted CSR and used it as an important element in new and emerging forms of governance. These changes include globalisation and the responsibilities companies feel the need to address, as they increasingly source products and services in developing countries; the issues of image and reputation, which have become increasingly important elements in corporate success; and the need for companies to recruit and retain highly skilled personnel (cited in Jones, et al., 2006). 2.7 Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility Many organisations are using nowadays CSR as a marketing tool due to the fact that the implementation of CSR practices can bring to the organisation a wide range of potential benefits, both direct and indirect. The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) has said that implementing a CSR policy, can bring real business benefits by reducing risk, by enhancing brand value, by opening doors and creating good will, and by improving staff efficiency and morale. It can also attract stable and ethical investment and add competitive edge (Chartered Institute of Building, Report) According to Mackey, Mackey Barney (2005) in the case that a company surpasses the minimum CSR requirements then the potential benefits can lead to a positive effect to the companys performance and value. Gildea (1994) and Zaman et al. (1991), stress out that research has shown that companies that care for the environment and exhibit good CSR practices experience increased consumer purchase preference in addition to increased investment appeal (cited in Panwar et al., 2006). Many consumers prefer to buy for ethical business. A survey conducted by Cone Inc. (2004) showed that 91% of the consumers have a more positive image of a product or a company when it supports a cause. The 90% of the consumers would consider switching to another companys product or services if they found out about a companys any unlawful or unethical practises. In addition, Muckiewicz (1993) supports that the reputation of an organisation plays a vital role as research studies show that 9 out of 10 consumers use it in order to decide which product or service they will buy from those that are similar in price and quality. According to Bernstein (2004), CSR benefits both the company and the community. Due to use of CSR the corporate culture and corporate name of the company can be improved significantly thus the best employees can be attracted and the motivation of the workforce will remain in high levels. The society benefits from CSR practices as well through a variety of services and action, though the company has to create some sort of societal benefit in order to be called socially responsible. Some of the potential benefits that a business can have from the use of CSR practices can include improved financial performance and profitability; reduced operating costs; long-term sustainability for companies and their employees; increased staff commitment and involvement; enhanced capacity to innovate; good relations with government and communities; better risk and crisis management; enhanced reputation and brand value; and the development of closer links with customers and greater awareness of their needs (cited in Jones et al., 2006) . Table 1 presents a summary of business benefits of CSR. TABLE 1 Concluding, it must be noted that the benefits from the adoption of CSR practises can never be predicted or be constant since each company operates in a different and always changing environment. Barnett (2007) adds that this unpredictability could lead to limited support for CSR initiatives from the board, in times of financial instability. Thus, the business case supporting CSR has to be specific for every company and based on Rowley and Berman (2000) CSR achievements of an organisation cannot be collated against some standards, since those does not exist. Furthermore, McWilliams and Siegel (2001) point out that the potential existence of those standards would allow CSR to be considered as part of the investment decisions, as the company would be able to make judgements for its business case in a more formal way. 2.8 Criticism against Corporate Social Responsibility The concept of CSR, as it can be seen from the various definitions presented on previous paragraphs, is based upon the principle that businesses do have another responsibility than just making profits. Every organisation has a responsibility towards the society, its people and the environment as well. At the same time, many are those who are opposed the idea of integrating CSR practices into their corporations and they believe that shareholders interest can be conflicted by operating a good business. Dr Milton Friedmann (1970), a renowned economist, in his article The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits affirms that there is one and only one social responsibility of business is to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud. According to his economic model the organisation is an economic institution which should only focus in the economic scope. Organisations are seen purely as legal entities incapable of value decisions. A manager who uses a firms resources for non-profit social purposes is thought to be diverting economic efficiency and levying an illegal tax on the organisation (Balabanis, Phillips and Lyall, 1998). Following this view Dr Robert Barrington (2008) states that the managers are concentrated on soft issues rather than hard issues of the bottom line and this is something that is costing money to the shareholders. Moving further Frankental (2001), conclude that CSR is simply a public relations invention and it will remain like this. He believes that CSR can only have real substance if it embraces all the stakeholders of a company, if it is reinforced by changes in company law relating to governance, if it is rewarded by financial markets, if its definition relates to the goals of social and ecological sustainability, if its implementation is benchmarked and audited, if it is open to public scrutiny, if the compliance mechanisms are in place, and if it is embedded across the organisation horizontally and vertically. Henderson (2001) after the examination of various issues related to the concept of CSR comments that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the current widely-held doctrine of CSR is deeply flawed. It rests on a mistaken view of issues and events, and its general adoption by businesses would reduce welfare and undermine the market economy. In the same motion Moir (2001) suggests that those who adopt the neoclassical model of business would follow the view that the only social responsibilities that a corporation can have are to provide employment, pay taxes and mainly to maximise its profits; therefore, maximise its shareholders value. On the other extreme of the arguments above, Dave Packard, the co-founder of Hewlett Packard Company once said I think many people assume, wrongly, that a company exists simply to make money. While this is an important result of a companys existence, we have to go deeper and find the real reasons for our beingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. We inevitably come to the conclusion that a group of people get together and exist as an institution that we call a company so that they are able to accomplish something collectively that they could not accomplish separately they make a contribution to society (cited in Handy, 2002). Concluding, Freeman (1984) argues that a corporation is wrong to be seen just as a private economic institution, as it was suggested by Friedman (1970), but it has to be also seen as a social institution. This way, corporations would be responsible for any of their actions against the people, the community and the environment. Based on his Stakeholder Theory, companies operations should not be based on the interests of their shareholders but they have to be based on the interested of their stakeholders. 2.9 Corporate Social Responsibility and Stakeholders The definition given about the concept of CSR from Johnson et al. (2005) includes the words obligations to stakeholders, which indicates that stakeholders have an important role to play in this extent. Freeman (1984), the father of the Stakeholder Theory of the firm, defines stakeholders as any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organizations objectives. The Stakeholder Theory of the firm is used as a basis to analyse those groups to whom the firm should be responsible (Moir, 2001). The identification of the different stakeholder groups of the organisation is extremely important during the implementation of CSR practices. Usually the stakeholder groups are separated into primary and secondary stakeholders. According to Clarkson (1995) a primary stakeholder group is one without whose continuing participation the corporation cannot survive as a going concern, while a secondary stakeholder group is those who influence or affect, or are influenced or affected by the corporation, but they are not engaged in transactions with the corporation and are not essential for its survival. Based on those definitions a primary stakeholder group contains shareholders and investors, employees, customers, suppliers, governments and communities. The secondary stakeholder group includes the media and a wide range of special interest groups (Clarkson, 1995). According to Freemans (1984) definition of stakeholders the relation between the company and its stakeholders can be described as two-way. Castka et al. (2006) support the view that the implementation of CSR is all about the right choices and strategic decisions and comment that the dilemmas that an organisations stakeholders can have are which choices and decision must choose in order to satisfy. Berman, Wicks, Kotha and Jones (1999), in order to find a solution for those dilemmas, derived two distinct stakeholder management approaches; the instrumental and the normative approach. The first, instrumental approach, suggests that concern for stakeholders is motivated by the perception that financial performance can be improved. The second, intrinsic stakeholder commitment approach, assumes that organisations have a normative (moral) commitment to advance stakeholders interests (Castka et al. 2006). The instrumental approach was the one empirically supported in Berman et al. (1999) res earch while Harrison and Freeman (1999) mention that the conduction of more research is essential in order to clarify the model of the normative approach. Although further research is required it can be clearly anticipated, through the examination of various literature, that the instrumental approach is the most desirable among researchers. McWilliams and Siegel (2001) suggest that corporations need to carefully consider in which aspects of the CSR to invest in and they comment that by using cost-benefit analysis the managers can ideally determine the level of CSR. Additionally, Agle, Mitchell and Sonnenfeld (1999) argue that the decision to make a CSR investment is driven by the needs of the most powerful stakeholders within the organisation, such as top management staff and is usually connected with their desire to gain more profits and increase the shareholders value. Finally Castka et al (2004) believe that the purpose of CSR is an investment and it must be considered and treated like one. Moving further they suggest that the balance between the need for maximizing profit from CSR and the demand for CSR from multiple stakeholders is the key to a core return on investment in CSR (Figure 2). In order to achieve this balance stakeholders expectations should be assessed and examined through dialogues and must be translated and included into the companys strategy plan. FIGURE 2 2.10 Areas of Corporate Social Responsibility Andriof and McIntosh (2001) write that CSR is not chequebook philanthropy, nor a study based on business ethics. They argue that the concept of CSR can be described as a vision that corporate leaders have for their business which is beyond of just making profits. CSR has an impact on every activity of the company and can affect areas either inside or outside the company. According to Andriof and McIntosh (2001) the four distinct areas that CSR encompasses are: The Community The Environment The Marketplace The Workplace By operating within these four areas companies can conduct specific programmes and make the difference and can actively monitor, evaluate and change their effects of their activities. The implementation of CSR and the thinking behind becoming involved in these areas represents the new way of doing business. 2.11 Activities of Corporate Social Responsibility The concept of CSR can be divided into many and diverse domains. Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) provide six broad domains of CSR activities, based on a comprehensive summarisation of CSR domains contained in Socrates: The Corporate Social Ratings Monitor (Kinder, Lydenberg, Domini Co. Inc. 1999), a database that describes and rates more than 600 companies in terms of their CSR records. These domains of CSR activities are: Community Support: The company provides support to the community with the use of health and educational and housing programs for financially disadvantaged. The generous and innovative giving is promoted Diversity: The company provides initiatives for sex, race, family, sexual orientation and disability diversity Employee Support: The company promotes health and safety, ensures job security and profit sharing, develops relations with the labour unions and allows employees involvement. Environment: The company avoids the use of hazardous waste management techniques, uses and produces environmental friendly products, develops pollution control and recycling techniques. Non-domestic Operations: The company prevents operations in countries where human right violations occur or unhealthy labour practices take place. Product: The company produces safe product and promotes research and development and innovation. Following the same line Johnson et al (2005) present a checklist of the organisations responsibilities. Those responsibilities are divided into two categories, the internal and the external aspects of CSR, based on the areas that the organisations activities can affect. Internal aspects of the companys activities can include employee welfare, working conditions, job design and intellectual property. External aspects of activities can include environmental issues, products, markets and marketing, suppliers, employment, community activity and human rights. 2.12 Factors influencing Corporate Social Responsibility

Executive Summary Essay -- Economics

Executive Summary ----------------- The 2000 were a period of enormous growth, Australian is a prosperous nation has benefited from 9 years of uninterrupted economic growth. However, the international tourist industry was suffer from the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in the USA on 11 September 2001. Overall, the Australian international tourist industry continues to be strong because of the board mix of natural environment and cosmopolitan cities located here, including high-tech, stable international political situation and economic prosperity. In order to increase Australian international tourist industry, Sport and Tourism of Australia’s Department of Industry, Science and Resources must develop a strategic plan to reach more potential visitors. With Australia unique natural resources, its appeal to more Asian travellers come to Australia. Over the past decade, most visitors came from the UK, Europe and North America. Now, Australia must begin some strategies to attract more travellers from Asia countries. This will give Australia the best opportunity to expand its tourism. Introduction Although Australia has been booming, the world economy has been in recession for some time. Indeed, Australian tourism is slowly declining has been far less than originally expected. Even though the Australian government strives to sustain growth in the economy without damaging the natural environment, but these improvement do not seem to be reaching the travellers its need to influence. Therefore, I am asked to summarise the marco environmental issues affecting Australian Tourism and propose additional strategies that the Sport and Tourism of Australia’s Department of Industry, Sc... ...ung singles, offer a lower price during peak season by effectiveness of adverting campaigns and promotion in generating more Asian, including: Â · Australia and Singapore have established a Joint Tourism Council that will aim to increase international arrivals to both Australia and Singapore from key markets through a co-operative partnership between the Australian Tourist Commission and the Singapore Tourism Board. Â · Most key operators selling Australia have developed websites providing product information, special deals, travel clubs and newsletters and online enquiry response mechanisms. Â · There are 10 major wholesalers/retail agents selling Australian group tour packages, with extensive branch office network of sales point location. These agents are linked with the three major carriers: Qantas, Cathy Pacific and Singapore Airlines.

Humour and Satire in Urdu Literature

Humor and Satire In Urdu Literature Taken Gull* & Tableaus Abstract Humor & Satire are an integral part of all forms of literature; & when the tragic part of a drama/story becomes unbearable, humor/satire provide a much needed diversion & relief. This article examines the effect of humor & satire with reference to some of the leading men of letters of Urdu literature. Keywords: Humor, Satire, Urdu, Literature It is difficult for human beings to always lead a solemn and glum life. They require amusement, mental relaxation and recreation of some sort. Humor is the most suitable & Innocent option for this purpose.Humor can be verbal, visual or physical. Non-verbal forms of communication for example – music and art can also be humorous. Since literature is the replica of life it produces not only serious, subtle and delicate literary pieces but also the need for mild, mature and mellow compositions has always been longed for to coax and cajole the readers. To maintain the regulari ty and steadiness of life the elements of humor and satire are always needed. Prevalently humor and satire are used as a compound genre but they are two different words having two distinct meanings.Simon Waistlines is of the opinion hat humor is the weapon of unarmed people: it helps people who are oppressed to smile. In fact, humor succeeds where wisdom fails. Stephen Lacked asserts: â€Å"Humor may also be defined as the kindly contemplation of the Incongruities of life and the artistic expression thereof. I think this is the best I know, because I wrote it myself. † 1 This classification demonstrates three important aspects, which are the ‘Irregularities of life', ‘kindly contemplation' and ‘artistic expression'.The first point explains that a humorist does not look at the Irregularities Taken Gull, Assistant Professor, Zinnia College for Women, University of Appeaser. ** Tableaus laved, Lecturer, Zinnia College for Women, university of Appeaser. * Taken Gull & Tableaus Saved of life disdainfully rather gets amused with them, the second Is that he deals up with comic situations and gruesomeness of life and the third point explains that a humorist adopts a very skillful manner of portraying such funny situations instead of presenting them in a blunt and boring way.Moving on to the better half of humor that Is satire, sarcasm and gibe as defined by the encyclopedia Britannica; â€Å"Satire In Its literary aspect, may be defined as the expression In adequate terms of the sense of amusement or disgust excited by the ridiculous or unseemly, provided that literary form without humor, satire is invective; without literary form, it is mere clownish Jeering†2 Babul- al-Jeez Hafted Suicide defines satire in the following words: â€Å"The comic situations of life which can be pointed out and the contemptuous aspects of life which can be opposed and humorously criticized are termed as satire†. The process of sarcasm shares a lot w ith surgery. As a surgeon dissects and opens p the human body in order to extricate it by the infected portion, similarly a satirist identifies the follies of the society and extricates it of the corruptive matters. Although it is true and admitted that a satirist definitely has the gusto and ardor of elatedness and supremacy present in him. Whatever a satirist targets he shows his soreness towards it and is desirous to modify and aspire it. Perhaps the element of sympathy is absent which is considered to be the spirit of humor.ABA-AH-Chair considering, states: â€Å"Those satirists who extract amusement and laugh at the helplessness of people can never reach the heights. A good satirist is a merciless surgeon and ruthlessly dissects but in his satire there are no signs of personal revenge or hollowness. His sole purpose is constructive and to bring forward a positive change. The objective of his art is to point out the hideousness of life and to beautify society. â€Å"4 Whether it is satire or humor both require sincerity and fidelity, whereas, prejudice, priggishness and ego are all considered injurious for them.Making somebody a subject of humor or saturating someone on the basis of personal grudges is a complete violation of the rules and is The Dialogue 179 Volume VII Number 2 Humor and Satire in Urdu Literature extremely cheap in itself. That is the reason, why in every literature it is considered to be the humor and satire of the lowest degree. Contrary to this, the earnest pleasure or displeasure of mind and thought gives vitality to humor and satire. Then the most difficult aspect of this skill is to criticize your own self.To ridicule others and make them the target of buffoonery is comparatively easy but to mock at oneself jovially is most difficult thing in the world. It is therefore rightly said by Shabby-LU- Hosannas that only those nations are considered to be civilized who can make fun of their weaknesses. 5 Satire can only grow and develop in such societies where people have prudent and practical approach towards life. Only those people give space to satire who have the patience and will for change.Rehashed Mad Suicide says that humor and satire can only develop in those countries and nations who are independent and value independence. But this genre cannot build up among the nations who are bound in the shackles of slavery. Among the people where gods and decent and quality humor and satire. Sarcasm exposes before the readers the personal folly and humiliation of others which can only be handled by a mature mind of decent taste and disciplined attitude. In short, it is a genre whose reader is not only able to see the faults of others but their own misdeeds as well.The element of humor makes this genre light hearted, Jovial, intimate and infectious. It is therefore necessary that it should not be cheap and vulgar but should rather be meaningful, far reaching, universalism and enduring. In another situation humor and s atire can be made the basis for estimating standards of the literature of any language. Humor and fun are cultural and represent the customs, traditions, beliefs and norms of a particular society. In fact, the types of humor vary from people to people and society to society.The comic gestures and funny situations which can be a laughing stalk for us may not be humorous at all for a British or an American. On the other hand, according to Muhammad Alma Khan humor and satire together can create the history of the mentality of a nation and also are its heritage. Also it can be agreed upon that humor and irony of any community or civilization can be used as n absolute scale to test the glee, perception, temperaments and feelings of them. 7 Now we have to observe whether humor and satire are correlated or not.Norman Forlorn in this connection states that for literary satire two components are worthwhile; one is criticizing and saturating an odious incident or thing and the other humor. 18 0 Rasher Mad Quietude's opinion is contrary to that of Norman Furlong's. According to him satire is implicit in humor, whereas, humor should not be a part of satire. He considers humor superior to satire and a form of arts which is difficult in execution. For humor, he says: complacent attitude and conferment is required, whereas, for satire energy, sorrow, anger and assertion all are required simultaneously. In comparison to Rehashed Mad Suicide, Stayed Thatches Hussein's notion is comparatively more steady where he writes that the sour feeling that people develop while reading a satirical work is the very reason why people separate it from humor. Hence, Thicker and Meredith both have accepted the vitality of humor but not of satire. The reality is that the existence of satire is impossible without the presence of humor, whereas, humor can exist without attire. 9 Anyhow, it is important to observe the several techniques of humor and satire. ). The first technique is that of compari son in which humor is created by the simultaneously. The second technique is â€Å"the use of language†. Developing humor by creatively using the human speech and expression in which Taker (repetition), Rarity-e-leaflet (pun) and Bazaar Kanji (wit) are included . Iii). The third technique is that of a humorous situation. Iv). The fourth technique is the use of a humorous character. V). The fifth technique is that of parody. V'). The sixth technique s that of irony.No doubt there are other techniques like Sol-e-mammal (paradox), Ambulance (exaggeration) etc. But the ones given above are universally known and popular. After observing the general aspects of humor and satire, we switch on to the art of humor and satire in Urdu literature. When we throw a cursory glance at it we learn that the early onset of it can be found in some ancient Distant (legends). But the quality of humor and satire in some places is quite inferior while at others the jazzy effects of naturally pleasant and amusing humor and satire are visible. InUrdu literature humor and satire are conspicuously observed for the first time in the letters written by Kigali where frank humor and offhandedness are quite domineering. Kigali was blessed with dual attribute of being a poet and a prose writer. Humor was a part of his nature, that's why Hall called him â€Å"Hewn-e- Career† (humorous animal). His humor is pious and pure. He smiles at the occasions when people are whining and crying. He is capable of laughing at himself not only on others. In his 181 letters we find soft smiles instead of whole hearted laughter.In his letters, instead of sing loud and sharp colors, he uses a beautiful blend of light colors of humor. Besides Kigali, humor and wit are also observed in the writings of Sir Seed Mad Khan and Chablis Neumann, whereas, the elements of satire are more specific in the literature contributed by Deputy Nazi Mad. Sir Seed's work was serious, constructive and persuasive but in reaction the humor and satire of demeanor was introduced in the form of Owed-e-punch, which swathed the irregularities, serration and Jaggedness of the society.But the quality of humor and satire of this newspaper was below standard. Jaded Hussein, Mach Bag Steamfitter, Tarragon Nathan Hajji and Jaywalk Parsed Barb etc. Are the eminent figures of this age. After this, there were seen several different kinds of humor and satire in Urdu literature and it gained a lot of popularity, some were self evident while others were mellow and mild. The names of Mullah Ramirez, Rehashed Mad Squid, Pratfall Bag, Eczema Bag Caught, Patria Babushka, Shattuck Than and Flak BEMA, etc. Re worth seriousness and humor. His purpose is always serious but style of expression is pleasant and witty. His choice of diction is the main reason of his successful writings ND he is an expert of using idiomatic and flowery language of Delhi. He loves antiquity and traditional people and is considered a conservative person. His style is productive and he talks about the improvement of society but never becomes dry and stringy. Weaker Gaga says that liveliness and vivacity are the main features of his style.In his writings certain happenings, characters and comparison are not used as tools to create laughter but words and sentences are constructed in such a pleasant way that they pleasantly touch the sensations of mind and heart. Such expressions automatically create smiles and one feels fresh and lively. 0 Although Patria Babushka has less contribution (in volume) but whatever he wrote gives him a prominent place in Urdu literature. His study is very vast and he has a great appreciation & understanding of international and especially English literature.There is a touch of delicacy, liveliness and good taste in his humor. He creates humor with situations more than words. He is good at parody writing but repartee is his special technique. He does not laugh at the individuals but at the groups and classes. Stayed Abdullah writes about him that the essence of his humor is based on integrity, uprightness ND sincerity more than sympathy and kindness. He dislikes and hates absurdities. He is a misanthropist and sometimes mocks himself. 11 182 Rehashed Mad Quietude's name is also mentioned along with Patria Babushka.Rehashed Mad was an alumni of Alight and taught there as a professor of Urdu literature. His essays are not easily comprehensible and intelligible because he keeps on referring to specific incidents and only those people can enjoy his writings who have deep knowledge in history, politics and literature. He quickly mentions one thing and the mind keeps on collecting segments into a single whole. The delicacy and fore-sightedness of his thoughts is quite different from other humorists. Ale- Mad Sartor writes about him that Rehashed Mad Squid is different from Patria and Particular Bag.He is among those people who are neither considered conservative nor modern rather he belongs to both the categories. He is an expert in paradox as well as repartee. Because of this dual quality he is considered Chesterton and Bernard Shah of Urdu literature. 12 Ale Mad Sartor gives a very good comparison of these three humor and satire writers, â€Å"Patria takes the raw material or his humor from the living beings where as Particular Bag from the dead ones writers were those who were not basically humorists but their writings reflect the sweetness of humor and satire.Some salient names of such writers are Mimed-LU- Fade, Balalaika Sad, Muffed All Badland, Manual Safari All Khan, Jazz Abdul Gaffer, Goshawk Hosannas Minimize, Abdul Amazed Salk, Amazed Lahore, Abraham Sales and Abdul Myocardial etc. The eminent names among modern humor writers are: Colonel Muhammad Khan, Shaffer-our-Raman, Gymkhana Ala Kapok, Fine Nash, Moisakos Hussein Had, Tall Hag Assam, Seaside Salk, Wausau Nazism, Goshawk Abdul Chaffer, Magmata Hussein, Young Butt and Muskrat Mad Housefly. The m ost prominent name among them is Muskrat Mad Housefly who is a natural humorist.His writings are adorned and decorated with special formalities but his sentences are smooth, pleasant and abrupt. He is witty and derives meanings out of meanings and deduces deep hidden meanings from apparent descriptions which seem to be an extempore conversation of a scholar. Most of his topics are taken from our day- today life but even from these common topics he seeks out some strange and amazing aspects of humor. Shade Mashes says that the foresight of Housefly entreats into human psyche and makes observations†¦